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Text 1

These days so many marriages end in divorce that our most sacred vows no longer ring with truth. “Happily ever after‖”and “Till death do us part” are expressions that seem on the way to becoming obsolete. If statistics could only measure loneliness, regret, pain, loss of self-confidence, and fear of the future, the numbers would be beyond quantifying.

Even though each broken marriage is unique, we can still find the common perils, the common causes for marital despair. Each marriage has crisis points. And each marriage tests endurance, the capacity for both intimacy and change.Outside pressures such as job loss, illness, infertility, trouble with a child, care of aging parents, and all the other plagues of life hit marriage the way hurricanes blast our shores. Some marriages survive these storms, and others don‘t.Marriages fail, however, not simply because of the outside weather but because the inner climate becomes too hot or too cold, too turbulent or too stupefying (使人目瞪口呆).

When we look at how we choose our partners and what expectations exist at the tender beginnings of romance,some of the reasons for disaster become quite clear. We all select with unconscious accuracy a mate who will recreate with us the emotional patterns of our first homes. Dr. Carl A. Whitaker, a marital therapist and emeritus professor of psychiatry at the University of Wisconsin, explains,“From early childhood on, each of us carried models for marriage, femininity, masculinity, motherhood, fatherhood and all the other family roles.”Each of us falls in love with a mate who has qualities of our parents, who will help us rediscover both the psychological happiness and miseries of our past lives.We may think we have found a man unlike Dad, but then he turns to drink or drugs, or loses his job over and over again, or sits silently in front of the TV just the way Dad did. A man may choose a woman who doesn‘t like kids just like his mother or who gambles away the family savings just like his mother. Or he may choose a slender wife who seems unlike his obese mother but then turns out to have other addictions that destroy their mutual happiness.

A man and a woman bring to their marriage bed a blended concoction (混合) of conscious and unconscious memories of their parents‘ lives together. The human way is to compulsively repeat and recreate the patterns of the past.Sigmund Freud so well described the unhappy design that many of us get trapped in: the unmet needs of childhood, the angry feelings left over from frustrations of long ago, the limits of trust, and the reoccurrence of old fears. Once an individual senses this entrapment (圈套), there may follow a yearning to escape, and the result could be a broken,splintered marriage.

Of course people can overcome the habits and attitudes that developed in childhood. We all have hidden strengths and amazing capacities for growth and creative change. Change, however, requires work—observing your part in a rotten pattern, bringing difficulties out into the open—and work runs counter to the basic myth of marriage: “When I wed this person all my problems will be over. I will have achieved success and I will become the center of life for this other person and this person will be my center, and we will mean everything to each other forever.”This myth, which every marriage relies on, is soon exposed. The coming of children, the pulls and tugs of their demands on affection and time,place a considerable strain on that basic myth of meaning everything to each other, of merging together and solving all of life‘s problems.

What does the phrase “the numbers” in Para.1 refer to

Text 3

It is often helpful when thinking about biological processes to consider some apparently similar yet better understood non-biological process. In the case of visual perception an obvious choice would be color photography. Since in many respects eyes resemble cameras, and percepts photographs, is it not reasonable to assume that perception is a sort of photographic process whereby samples of the external world become spontaneously and accurately reproduced somewhere inside our heads Unfortunately, the answer must be no. The best that can be said of the photographic analogy is that it points up what perception is not. Beyond this it is superficial and misleading. Four simple experiments should make the matter plain.

In the first a person is asked to match a pair of black and white discs, which are rotating at such a speed as to make them appear uniformly grey. One disc is standing in shadow, the other in bright illumination. By adjusting the ratio of black to white in one of the discs the subject tries to make it look the same as the other. The results show him to be remarkably accurate, for it seems he has made the proportion of black to white in the brightly illuminated disc almost identical with that in the disc which stood in shadow. But there is nothing photographic about his perception, for when the matched discs, still spinning, are photographed, the resulting print shows them to be quite dissimilar in appearance.The disc in shadow is obviously very much darker than the other one. What has happened Both the camera and the person were accurate, but their criteria differed. One might say that the camera recorded things as they look and the person things as they are. But the situation is manifestly (明白地) more complex than this, for the person also recorded things as they look. He did better than the camera because he made them look as they really are. He was not misled by the differences in illumination. He showed perceptual constancy. By reason of an extremely rapid, wholly unconscious piece of computation he received a more accurate record of the external world than could the camera.

In the second experiment a person is asked to match with a color card the colors of two pictures in dim illumination.One is of a leaf, the other of a donkey. Both are colored an equal shade of green. In making his match he chooses a much stronger green for the leaf than for the donkey. The leaf evidently looks greener than the donkey. The percipient (有感知力的人) makes a perceptual world compatible with his own experience. It hardly needs saying that cameras lack this versatility.

In the third experiment hungry, thirsty and satiated (充分满足的) people are asked to equalize the brightness of pictures depicting food, water and other objects unrelated to hunger or thirst. When the intensities at which they set the pictures are measured it is found that hungry people see pictures relating to food as brighter than the rest (i.e. to equalize the pictures they make the food ones less intense), and thirsty people do likewise with “drink” pictures. For the satiated group no differences are obtained between the different objects. In other words, perception serves to satisfy needs, not to enrich subjective experience. Unlike a photograph the percept is determined by more than just the stimulus.

The fourth experiment is of a rather different kind. With ears plugged, their eyes beneath translucent(透亮的)goggles (转动眼珠) and their bodies either encased (包装) in cotton or wool, or floating naked in water at body temperature, people are deprived for considerable periods of external stimulation. Contrary to what one might expect,however, such circumstances result not in a lack of perceptual experience but rather a surprising change in what is perceived. The subjects in such an experiment begin to see, feel and hear things which bear no more relationship to the immediate external world than does a dream in someone who is asleep. These people are not asleep yet their hallucinations, or so-called autistic‘ perceptions, may be as vivid, if not more so, than any normal percept.

In the first paragraph, the author suggests that ________.

Text 4

The widely held assumption that people would volunteer for AIDS-tests in droves (成群结队) once treatment became available was wrong. And the reason for that appears to be that the government has not managed to reduce the stigma (耻辱) associated with AIDS, and thus with seeking out a test for it if you suspect you might be infected.

To combat this, the whole basis of AIDS testing in Botswana has just been changed. The idea is to “downgrade” the process into something low-key, routine and stigma-free. Until now, a potential test subject had to opt in, by asking for a test. Having asked, he was given 40 minutes of counseling to make sure he really knew what he was doing before any test was carried out. The new policy is to test people routinely when they visit the doctor. That way, having a test cannot be seen as an indication that an individual believes he may be infected. The test is not compulsory, but objectors must actively opt out. Silence is assumed to be consent, and no counseling is offered—just as would be the case for any other infectious disease.

This policy shift is probably just the first of many that will take place in Botswana, South Africa and other African countries that are planning the mass provision of anti-AIDS drugs in public hospitals. Dwain Ndwapi, a doctor at Botswana‘s largest AIDS clinic, thinks that there are circumstances in which testing should be compulsory. In particular, he believes that the currently high rate of transmission from mothers to new-born children could be reduced to zero if expectant mothers were always tested—and if those who proved positive were treated with an appropriate anti-retroviral (逆转录病毒) before they gave birth.

Another controversial change in the air is to reduce the frequency of two costly tests of patients‘ blood. Viral-load (病毒载量) tests and CD4-cell counts both measure how acute an individual‘s infection has become. That helps a patient‘s doctor to decide when to prescribe anti-retroviral. But laboratory capacity in Africa is inadequate for regular testing of the millions of people that need such drugs—at least if the tests are carried out as frequently as they would be in a rich country. Less frequent testing of each individual would allow more individuals to be given at least some tests.

But that must be balanced against the need to treat more people faster. Doctors in Botswana are staggered at how desperately sick many patients are when they first arrive. They had expected people to walk into clinics for AIDS tests. Instead, many come in on stretchers on the verge of death. Treating the very ill takes much more time and money than giving anti-AIDS pills to relatively healthy people, and it means that these people may have been inadvertently infecting others for longer. If routine tests persuade more patients to get help before they slump on a stretcher, all the better.

Why few people would volunteer for AIDS-tests if treatment is readily prepared Because people ________.

Text 1

These days so many marriages end in divorce that our most sacred vows no longer ring with truth. “Happily ever after‖”and “Till death do us part” are expressions that seem on the way to becoming obsolete. If statistics could only measure loneliness, regret, pain, loss of self-confidence, and fear of the future, the numbers would be beyond quantifying.

Even though each broken marriage is unique, we can still find the common perils, the common causes for marital despair. Each marriage has crisis points. And each marriage tests endurance, the capacity for both intimacy and change.Outside pressures such as job loss, illness, infertility, trouble with a child, care of aging parents, and all the other plagues of life hit marriage the way hurricanes blast our shores. Some marriages survive these storms, and others don‘t.Marriages fail, however, not simply because of the outside weather but because the inner climate becomes too hot or too cold, too turbulent or too stupefying (使人目瞪口呆).

When we look at how we choose our partners and what expectations exist at the tender beginnings of romance,some of the reasons for disaster become quite clear. We all select with unconscious accuracy a mate who will recreate with us the emotional patterns of our first homes. Dr. Carl A. Whitaker, a marital therapist and emeritus professor of psychiatry at the University of Wisconsin, explains,“From early childhood on, each of us carried models for marriage, femininity, masculinity, motherhood, fatherhood and all the other family roles.”Each of us falls in love with a mate who has qualities of our parents, who will help us rediscover both the psychological happiness and miseries of our past lives.We may think we have found a man unlike Dad, but then he turns to drink or drugs, or loses his job over and over again, or sits silently in front of the TV just the way Dad did. A man may choose a woman who doesn‘t like kids just like his mother or who gambles away the family savings just like his mother. Or he may choose a slender wife who seems unlike his obese mother but then turns out to have other addictions that destroy their mutual happiness.

A man and a woman bring to their marriage bed a blended concoction (混合) of conscious and unconscious memories of their parents‘ lives together. The human way is to compulsively repeat and recreate the patterns of the past.Sigmund Freud so well described the unhappy design that many of us get trapped in: the unmet needs of childhood, the angry feelings left over from frustrations of long ago, the limits of trust, and the reoccurrence of old fears. Once an individual senses this entrapment (圈套), there may follow a yearning to escape, and the result could be a broken,splintered marriage.

Of course people can overcome the habits and attitudes that developed in childhood. We all have hidden strengths and amazing capacities for growth and creative change. Change, however, requires work—observing your part in a rotten pattern, bringing difficulties out into the open—and work runs counter to the basic myth of marriage: “When I wed this person all my problems will be over. I will have achieved success and I will become the center of life for this other person and this person will be my center, and we will mean everything to each other forever.”This myth, which every marriage relies on, is soon exposed. The coming of children, the pulls and tugs of their demands on affection and time,place a considerable strain on that basic myth of meaning everything to each other, of merging together and solving all of life‘s problems.

Which of the following statement is true

Text 3

It is often helpful when thinking about biological processes to consider some apparently similar yet better understood non-biological process. In the case of visual perception an obvious choice would be color photography. Since in many respects eyes resemble cameras, and percepts photographs, is it not reasonable to assume that perception is a sort of photographic process whereby samples of the external world become spontaneously and accurately reproduced somewhere inside our heads Unfortunately, the answer must be no. The best that can be said of the photographic analogy is that it points up what perception is not. Beyond this it is superficial and misleading. Four simple experiments should make the matter plain.

In the first a person is asked to match a pair of black and white discs, which are rotating at such a speed as to make them appear uniformly grey. One disc is standing in shadow, the other in bright illumination. By adjusting the ratio of black to white in one of the discs the subject tries to make it look the same as the other. The results show him to be remarkably accurate, for it seems he has made the proportion of black to white in the brightly illuminated disc almost identical with that in the disc which stood in shadow. But there is nothing photographic about his perception, for when the matched discs, still spinning, are photographed, the resulting print shows them to be quite dissimilar in appearance.The disc in shadow is obviously very much darker than the other one. What has happened Both the camera and the person were accurate, but their criteria differed. One might say that the camera recorded things as they look and the person things as they are. But the situation is manifestly (明白地) more complex than this, for the person also recorded things as they look. He did better than the camera because he made them look as they really are. He was not misled by the differences in illumination. He showed perceptual constancy. By reason of an extremely rapid, wholly unconscious piece of computation he received a more accurate record of the external world than could the camera.

In the second experiment a person is asked to match with a color card the colors of two pictures in dim illumination.One is of a leaf, the other of a donkey. Both are colored an equal shade of green. In making his match he chooses a much stronger green for the leaf than for the donkey. The leaf evidently looks greener than the donkey. The percipient (有感知力的人) makes a perceptual world compatible with his own experience. It hardly needs saying that cameras lack this versatility.

In the third experiment hungry, thirsty and satiated (充分满足的) people are asked to equalize the brightness of pictures depicting food, water and other objects unrelated to hunger or thirst. When the intensities at which they set the pictures are measured it is found that hungry people see pictures relating to food as brighter than the rest (i.e. to equalize the pictures they make the food ones less intense), and thirsty people do likewise with “drink” pictures. For the satiated group no differences are obtained between the different objects. In other words, perception serves to satisfy needs, not to enrich subjective experience. Unlike a photograph the percept is determined by more than just the stimulus.

The fourth experiment is of a rather different kind. With ears plugged, their eyes beneath translucent(透亮的)goggles (转动眼珠) and their bodies either encased (包装) in cotton or wool, or floating naked in water at body temperature, people are deprived for considerable periods of external stimulation. Contrary to what one might expect,however, such circumstances result not in a lack of perceptual experience but rather a surprising change in what is perceived. The subjects in such an experiment begin to see, feel and hear things which bear no more relationship to the immediate external world than does a dream in someone who is asleep. These people are not asleep yet their hallucinations, or so-called autistic‘ perceptions, may be as vivid, if not more so, than any normal percept.

In the first experiment, it is proved that a person ________.

Text 4

The widely held assumption that people would volunteer for AIDS-tests in droves (成群结队) once treatment became available was wrong. And the reason for that appears to be that the government has not managed to reduce the stigma (耻辱) associated with AIDS, and thus with seeking out a test for it if you suspect you might be infected.

To combat this, the whole basis of AIDS testing in Botswana has just been changed. The idea is to “downgrade” the process into something low-key, routine and stigma-free. Until now, a potential test subject had to opt in, by asking for a test. Having asked, he was given 40 minutes of counseling to make sure he really knew what he was doing before any test was carried out. The new policy is to test people routinely when they visit the doctor. That way, having a test cannot be seen as an indication that an individual believes he may be infected. The test is not compulsory, but objectors must actively opt out. Silence is assumed to be consent, and no counseling is offered—just as would be the case for any other infectious disease.

This policy shift is probably just the first of many that will take place in Botswana, South Africa and other African countries that are planning the mass provision of anti-AIDS drugs in public hospitals. Dwain Ndwapi, a doctor at Botswana‘s largest AIDS clinic, thinks that there are circumstances in which testing should be compulsory. In particular, he believes that the currently high rate of transmission from mothers to new-born children could be reduced to zero if expectant mothers were always tested—and if those who proved positive were treated with an appropriate anti-retroviral (逆转录病毒) before they gave birth.

Another controversial change in the air is to reduce the frequency of two costly tests of patients‘ blood. Viral-load (病毒载量) tests and CD4-cell counts both measure how acute an individual‘s infection has become. That helps a patient‘s doctor to decide when to prescribe anti-retroviral. But laboratory capacity in Africa is inadequate for regular testing of the millions of people that need such drugs—at least if the tests are carried out as frequently as they would be in a rich country. Less frequent testing of each individual would allow more individuals to be given at least some tests.

But that must be balanced against the need to treat more people faster. Doctors in Botswana are staggered at how desperately sick many patients are when they first arrive. They had expected people to walk into clinics for AIDS tests. Instead, many come in on stretchers on the verge of death. Treating the very ill takes much more time and money than giving anti-AIDS pills to relatively healthy people, and it means that these people may have been inadvertently infecting others for longer. If routine tests persuade more patients to get help before they slump on a stretcher, all the better.

According to the text, how to “downgrade” the test process in Para.2

Text 1

These days so many marriages end in divorce that our most sacred vows no longer ring with truth. “Happily ever after‖”and “Till death do us part” are expressions that seem on the way to becoming obsolete. If statistics could only measure loneliness, regret, pain, loss of self-confidence, and fear of the future, the numbers would be beyond quantifying.

Even though each broken marriage is unique, we can still find the common perils, the common causes for marital despair. Each marriage has crisis points. And each marriage tests endurance, the capacity for both intimacy and change.Outside pressures such as job loss, illness, infertility, trouble with a child, care of aging parents, and all the other plagues of life hit marriage the way hurricanes blast our shores. Some marriages survive these storms, and others don‘t.Marriages fail, however, not simply because of the outside weather but because the inner climate becomes too hot or too cold, too turbulent or too stupefying (使人目瞪口呆).

When we look at how we choose our partners and what expectations exist at the tender beginnings of romance,some of the reasons for disaster become quite clear. We all select with unconscious accuracy a mate who will recreate with us the emotional patterns of our first homes. Dr. Carl A. Whitaker, a marital therapist and emeritus professor of psychiatry at the University of Wisconsin, explains,“From early childhood on, each of us carried models for marriage, femininity, masculinity, motherhood, fatherhood and all the other family roles.”Each of us falls in love with a mate who has qualities of our parents, who will help us rediscover both the psychological happiness and miseries of our past lives.We may think we have found a man unlike Dad, but then he turns to drink or drugs, or loses his job over and over again, or sits silently in front of the TV just the way Dad did. A man may choose a woman who doesn‘t like kids just like his mother or who gambles away the family savings just like his mother. Or he may choose a slender wife who seems unlike his obese mother but then turns out to have other addictions that destroy their mutual happiness.

A man and a woman bring to their marriage bed a blended concoction (混合) of conscious and unconscious memories of their parents‘ lives together. The human way is to compulsively repeat and recreate the patterns of the past.Sigmund Freud so well described the unhappy design that many of us get trapped in: the unmet needs of childhood, the angry feelings left over from frustrations of long ago, the limits of trust, and the reoccurrence of old fears. Once an individual senses this entrapment (圈套), there may follow a yearning to escape, and the result could be a broken,splintered marriage.

Of course people can overcome the habits and attitudes that developed in childhood. We all have hidden strengths and amazing capacities for growth and creative change. Change, however, requires work—observing your part in a rotten pattern, bringing difficulties out into the open—and work runs counter to the basic myth of marriage: “When I wed this person all my problems will be over. I will have achieved success and I will become the center of life for this other person and this person will be my center, and we will mean everything to each other forever.”This myth, which every marriage relies on, is soon exposed. The coming of children, the pulls and tugs of their demands on affection and time,place a considerable strain on that basic myth of meaning everything to each other, of merging together and solving all of life‘s problems.

What is the main idea of the third paragraph

Text 4

The widely held assumption that people would volunteer for AIDS-tests in droves (成群结队) once treatment became available was wrong. And the reason for that appears to be that the government has not managed to reduce the stigma (耻辱) associated with AIDS, and thus with seeking out a test for it if you suspect you might be infected.

To combat this, the whole basis of AIDS testing in Botswana has just been changed. The idea is to “downgrade” the process into something low-key, routine and stigma-free. Until now, a potential test subject had to opt in, by asking for a test. Having asked, he was given 40 minutes of counseling to make sure he really knew what he was doing before any test was carried out. The new policy is to test people routinely when they visit the doctor. That way, having a test cannot be seen as an indication that an individual believes he may be infected. The test is not compulsory, but objectors must actively opt out. Silence is assumed to be consent, and no counseling is offered—just as would be the case for any other infectious disease.

This policy shift is probably just the first of many that will take place in Botswana, South Africa and other African countries that are planning the mass provision of anti-AIDS drugs in public hospitals. Dwain Ndwapi, a doctor at Botswana‘s largest AIDS clinic, thinks that there are circumstances in which testing should be compulsory. In particular, he believes that the currently high rate of transmission from mothers to new-born children could be reduced to zero if expectant mothers were always tested—and if those who proved positive were treated with an appropriate anti-retroviral (逆转录病毒) before they gave birth.

Another controversial change in the air is to reduce the frequency of two costly tests of patients‘ blood. Viral-load (病毒载量) tests and CD4-cell counts both measure how acute an individual‘s infection has become. That helps a patient‘s doctor to decide when to prescribe anti-retroviral. But laboratory capacity in Africa is inadequate for regular testing of the millions of people that need such drugs—at least if the tests are carried out as frequently as they would be in a rich country. Less frequent testing of each individual would allow more individuals to be given at least some tests.

But that must be balanced against the need to treat more people faster. Doctors in Botswana are staggered at how desperately sick many patients are when they first arrive. They had expected people to walk into clinics for AIDS tests. Instead, many come in on stretchers on the verge of death. Treating the very ill takes much more time and money than giving anti-AIDS pills to relatively healthy people, and it means that these people may have been inadvertently infecting others for longer. If routine tests persuade more patients to get help before they slump on a stretcher, all the better.

It can be inferred from the text that ________.

Text 3

It is often helpful when thinking about biological processes to consider some apparently similar yet better understood non-biological process. In the case of visual perception an obvious choice would be color photography. Since in many respects eyes resemble cameras, and percepts photographs, is it not reasonable to assume that perception is a sort of photographic process whereby samples of the external world become spontaneously and accurately reproduced somewhere inside our heads Unfortunately, the answer must be no. The best that can be said of the photographic analogy is that it points up what perception is not. Beyond this it is superficial and misleading. Four simple experiments should make the matter plain.

In the first a person is asked to match a pair of black and white discs, which are rotating at such a speed as to make them appear uniformly grey. One disc is standing in shadow, the other in bright illumination. By adjusting the ratio of black to white in one of the discs the subject tries to make it look the same as the other. The results show him to be remarkably accurate, for it seems he has made the proportion of black to white in the brightly illuminated disc almost identical with that in the disc which stood in shadow. But there is nothing photographic about his perception, for when the matched discs, still spinning, are photographed, the resulting print shows them to be quite dissimilar in appearance.The disc in shadow is obviously very much darker than the other one. What has happened Both the camera and the person were accurate, but their criteria differed. One might say that the camera recorded things as they look and the person things as they are. But the situation is manifestly (明白地) more complex than this, for the person also recorded things as they look. He did better than the camera because he made them look as they really are. He was not misled by the differences in illumination. He showed perceptual constancy. By reason of an extremely rapid, wholly unconscious piece of computation he received a more accurate record of the external world than could the camera.

In the second experiment a person is asked to match with a color card the colors of two pictures in dim illumination.One is of a leaf, the other of a donkey. Both are colored an equal shade of green. In making his match he chooses a much stronger green for the leaf than for the donkey. The leaf evidently looks greener than the donkey. The percipient (有感知力的人) makes a perceptual world compatible with his own experience. It hardly needs saying that cameras lack this versatility.

In the third experiment hungry, thirsty and satiated (充分满足的) people are asked to equalize the brightness of pictures depicting food, water and other objects unrelated to hunger or thirst. When the intensities at which they set the pictures are measured it is found that hungry people see pictures relating to food as brighter than the rest (i.e. to equalize the pictures they make the food ones less intense), and thirsty people do likewise with “drink” pictures. For the satiated group no differences are obtained between the different objects. In other words, perception serves to satisfy needs, not to enrich subjective experience. Unlike a photograph the percept is determined by more than just the stimulus.

The fourth experiment is of a rather different kind. With ears plugged, their eyes beneath translucent(透亮的)goggles (转动眼珠) and their bodies either encased (包装) in cotton or wool, or floating naked in water at body temperature, people are deprived for considerable periods of external stimulation. Contrary to what one might expect,however, such circumstances result not in a lack of perceptual experience but rather a surprising change in what is perceived. The subjects in such an experiment begin to see, feel and hear things which bear no more relationship to the immediate external world than does a dream in someone who is asleep. These people are not asleep yet their hallucinations, or so-called autistic‘ perceptions, may be as vivid, if not more so, than any normal percept.

The second experiment shows that ________.

Text 1

These days so many marriages end in divorce that our most sacred vows no longer ring with truth. “Happily ever after‖”and “Till death do us part” are expressions that seem on the way to becoming obsolete. If statistics could only measure loneliness, regret, pain, loss of self-confidence, and fear of the future, the numbers would be beyond quantifying.

Even though each broken marriage is unique, we can still find the common perils, the common causes for marital despair. Each marriage has crisis points. And each marriage tests endurance, the capacity for both intimacy and change.Outside pressures such as job loss, illness, infertility, trouble with a child, care of aging parents, and all the other plagues of life hit marriage the way hurricanes blast our shores. Some marriages survive these storms, and others don‘t.Marriages fail, however, not simply because of the outside weather but because the inner climate becomes too hot or too cold, too turbulent or too stupefying (使人目瞪口呆).

When we look at how we choose our partners and what expectations exist at the tender beginnings of romance,some of the reasons for disaster become quite clear. We all select with unconscious accuracy a mate who will recreate with us the emotional patterns of our first homes. Dr. Carl A. Whitaker, a marital therapist and emeritus professor of psychiatry at the University of Wisconsin, explains,“From early childhood on, each of us carried models for marriage, femininity, masculinity, motherhood, fatherhood and all the other family roles.”Each of us falls in love with a mate who has qualities of our parents, who will help us rediscover both the psychological happiness and miseries of our past lives.We may think we have found a man unlike Dad, but then he turns to drink or drugs, or loses his job over and over again, or sits silently in front of the TV just the way Dad did. A man may choose a woman who doesn‘t like kids just like his mother or who gambles away the family savings just like his mother. Or he may choose a slender wife who seems unlike his obese mother but then turns out to have other addictions that destroy their mutual happiness.

A man and a woman bring to their marriage bed a blended concoction (混合) of conscious and unconscious memories of their parents‘ lives together. The human way is to compulsively repeat and recreate the patterns of the past.Sigmund Freud so well described the unhappy design that many of us get trapped in: the unmet needs of childhood, the angry feelings left over from frustrations of long ago, the limits of trust, and the reoccurrence of old fears. Once an individual senses this entrapment (圈套), there may follow a yearning to escape, and the result could be a broken,splintered marriage.

Of course people can overcome the habits and attitudes that developed in childhood. We all have hidden strengths and amazing capacities for growth and creative change. Change, however, requires work—observing your part in a rotten pattern, bringing difficulties out into the open—and work runs counter to the basic myth of marriage: “When I wed this person all my problems will be over. I will have achieved success and I will become the center of life for this other person and this person will be my center, and we will mean everything to each other forever.”This myth, which every marriage relies on, is soon exposed. The coming of children, the pulls and tugs of their demands on affection and time,place a considerable strain on that basic myth of meaning everything to each other, of merging together and solving all of life‘s problems.

Which of the following is not implied in Sigmund Freud‘s quotation in Para.4

Text 1

These days so many marriages end in divorce that our most sacred vows no longer ring with truth. “Happily ever after‖”and “Till death do us part” are expressions that seem on the way to becoming obsolete. If statistics could only measure loneliness, regret, pain, loss of self-confidence, and fear of the future, the numbers would be beyond quantifying.

Even though each broken marriage is unique, we can still find the common perils, the common causes for marital despair. Each marriage has crisis points. And each marriage tests endurance, the capacity for both intimacy and change.Outside pressures such as job loss, illness, infertility, trouble with a child, care of aging parents, and all the other plagues of life hit marriage the way hurricanes blast our shores. Some marriages survive these storms, and others don‘t.Marriages fail, however, not simply because of the outside weather but because the inner climate becomes too hot or too cold, too turbulent or too stupefying (使人目瞪口呆).

When we look at how we choose our partners and what expectations exist at the tender beginnings of romance,some of the reasons for disaster become quite clear. We all select with unconscious accuracy a mate who will recreate with us the emotional patterns of our first homes. Dr. Carl A. Whitaker, a marital therapist and emeritus professor of psychiatry at the University of Wisconsin, explains,“From early childhood on, each of us carried models for marriage, femininity, masculinity, motherhood, fatherhood and all the other family roles.”Each of us falls in love with a mate who has qualities of our parents, who will help us rediscover both the psychological happiness and miseries of our past lives.We may think we have found a man unlike Dad, but then he turns to drink or drugs, or loses his job over and over again, or sits silently in front of the TV just the way Dad did. A man may choose a woman who doesn‘t like kids just like his mother or who gambles away the family savings just like his mother. Or he may choose a slender wife who seems unlike his obese mother but then turns out to have other addictions that destroy their mutual happiness.

A man and a woman bring to their marriage bed a blended concoction (混合) of conscious and unconscious memories of their parents‘ lives together. The human way is to compulsively repeat and recreate the patterns of the past.Sigmund Freud so well described the unhappy design that many of us get trapped in: the unmet needs of childhood, the angry feelings left over from frustrations of long ago, the limits of trust, and the reoccurrence of old fears. Once an individual senses this entrapment (圈套), there may follow a yearning to escape, and the result could be a broken,splintered marriage.

Of course people can overcome the habits and attitudes that developed in childhood. We all have hidden strengths and amazing capacities for growth and creative change. Change, however, requires work—observing your part in a rotten pattern, bringing difficulties out into the open—and work runs counter to the basic myth of marriage: “When I wed this person all my problems will be over. I will have achieved success and I will become the center of life for this other person and this person will be my center, and we will mean everything to each other forever.”This myth, which every marriage relies on, is soon exposed. The coming of children, the pulls and tugs of their demands on affection and time,place a considerable strain on that basic myth of meaning everything to each other, of merging together and solving all of life‘s problems.

What does the writer think of the basic myth of the marriage

Text 4

The widely held assumption that people would volunteer for AIDS-tests in droves (成群结队) once treatment became available was wrong. And the reason for that appears to be that the government has not managed to reduce the stigma (耻辱) associated with AIDS, and thus with seeking out a test for it if you suspect you might be infected.

To combat this, the whole basis of AIDS testing in Botswana has just been changed. The idea is to “downgrade” the process into something low-key, routine and stigma-free. Until now, a potential test subject had to opt in, by asking for a test. Having asked, he was given 40 minutes of counseling to make sure he really knew what he was doing before any test was carried out. The new policy is to test people routinely when they visit the doctor. That way, having a test cannot be seen as an indication that an individual believes he may be infected. The test is not compulsory, but objectors must actively opt out. Silence is assumed to be consent, and no counseling is offered—just as would be the case for any other infectious disease.

This policy shift is probably just the first of many that will take place in Botswana, South Africa and other African countries that are planning the mass provision of anti-AIDS drugs in public hospitals. Dwain Ndwapi, a doctor at Botswana‘s largest AIDS clinic, thinks that there are circumstances in which testing should be compulsory. In particular, he believes that the currently high rate of transmission from mothers to new-born children could be reduced to zero if expectant mothers were always tested—and if those who proved positive were treated with an appropriate anti-retroviral (逆转录病毒) before they gave birth.

Another controversial change in the air is to reduce the frequency of two costly tests of patients‘ blood. Viral-load (病毒载量) tests and CD4-cell counts both measure how acute an individual‘s infection has become. That helps a patient‘s doctor to decide when to prescribe anti-retroviral. But laboratory capacity in Africa is inadequate for regular testing of the millions of people that need such drugs—at least if the tests are carried out as frequently as they would be in a rich country. Less frequent testing of each individual would allow more individuals to be given at least some tests.

But that must be balanced against the need to treat more people faster. Doctors in Botswana are staggered at how desperately sick many patients are when they first arrive. They had expected people to walk into clinics for AIDS tests. Instead, many come in on stretchers on the verge of death. Treating the very ill takes much more time and money than giving anti-AIDS pills to relatively healthy people, and it means that these people may have been inadvertently infecting others for longer. If routine tests persuade more patients to get help before they slump on a stretcher, all the better.

The purpose of reducing the frequency of two expensive blood tests is to ________.

Text 3

It is often helpful when thinking about biological processes to consider some apparently similar yet better understood non-biological process. In the case of visual perception an obvious choice would be color photography. Since in many respects eyes resemble cameras, and percepts photographs, is it not reasonable to assume that perception is a sort of photographic process whereby samples of the external world become spontaneously and accurately reproduced somewhere inside our heads Unfortunately, the answer must be no. The best that can be said of the photographic analogy is that it points up what perception is not. Beyond this it is superficial and misleading. Four simple experiments should make the matter plain.

In the first a person is asked to match a pair of black and white discs, which are rotating at such a speed as to make them appear uniformly grey. One disc is standing in shadow, the other in bright illumination. By adjusting the ratio of black to white in one of the discs the subject tries to make it look the same as the other. The results show him to be remarkably accurate, for it seems he has made the proportion of black to white in the brightly illuminated disc almost identical with that in the disc which stood in shadow. But there is nothing photographic about his perception, for when the matched discs, still spinning, are photographed, the resulting print shows them to be quite dissimilar in appearance.The disc in shadow is obviously very much darker than the other one. What has happened Both the camera and the person were accurate, but their criteria differed. One might say that the camera recorded things as they look and the person things as they are. But the situation is manifestly (明白地) more complex than this, for the person also recorded things as they look. He did better than the camera because he made them look as they really are. He was not misled by the differences in illumination. He showed perceptual constancy. By reason of an extremely rapid, wholly unconscious piece of computation he received a more accurate record of the external world than could the camera.

In the second experiment a person is asked to match with a color card the colors of two pictures in dim illumination.One is of a leaf, the other of a donkey. Both are colored an equal shade of green. In making his match he chooses a much stronger green for the leaf than for the donkey. The leaf evidently looks greener than the donkey. The percipient (有感知力的人) makes a perceptual world compatible with his own experience. It hardly needs saying that cameras lack this versatility.

In the third experiment hungry, thirsty and satiated (充分满足的) people are asked to equalize the brightness of pictures depicting food, water and other objects unrelated to hunger or thirst. When the intensities at which they set the pictures are measured it is found that hungry people see pictures relating to food as brighter than the rest (i.e. to equalize the pictures they make the food ones less intense), and thirsty people do likewise with “drink” pictures. For the satiated group no differences are obtained between the different objects. In other words, perception serves to satisfy needs, not to enrich subjective experience. Unlike a photograph the percept is determined by more than just the stimulus.

The fourth experiment is of a rather different kind. With ears plugged, their eyes beneath translucent(透亮的)goggles (转动眼珠) and their bodies either encased (包装) in cotton or wool, or floating naked in water at body temperature, people are deprived for considerable periods of external stimulation. Contrary to what one might expect,however, such circumstances result not in a lack of perceptual experience but rather a surprising change in what is perceived. The subjects in such an experiment begin to see, feel and hear things which bear no more relationship to the immediate external world than does a dream in someone who is asleep. These people are not asleep yet their hallucinations, or so-called autistic‘ perceptions, may be as vivid, if not more so, than any normal percept.

What does “to equalize the brightness” in Para. 4 mean

Text 4

The widely held assumption that people would volunteer for AIDS-tests in droves (成群结队) once treatment became available was wrong. And the reason for that appears to be that the government has not managed to reduce the stigma (耻辱) associated with AIDS, and thus with seeking out a test for it if you suspect you might be infected.

To combat this, the whole basis of AIDS testing in Botswana has just been changed. The idea is to “downgrade” the process into something low-key, routine and stigma-free. Until now, a potential test subject had to opt in, by asking for a test. Having asked, he was given 40 minutes of counseling to make sure he really knew what he was doing before any test was carried out. The new policy is to test people routinely when they visit the doctor. That way, having a test cannot be seen as an indication that an individual believes he may be infected. The test is not compulsory, but objectors must actively opt out. Silence is assumed to be consent, and no counseling is offered—just as would be the case for any other infectious disease.

This policy shift is probably just the first of many that will take place in Botswana, South Africa and other African countries that are planning the mass provision of anti-AIDS drugs in public hospitals. Dwain Ndwapi, a doctor at Botswana‘s largest AIDS clinic, thinks that there are circumstances in which testing should be compulsory. In particular, he believes that the currently high rate of transmission from mothers to new-born children could be reduced to zero if expectant mothers were always tested—and if those who proved positive were treated with an appropriate anti-retroviral (逆转录病毒) before they gave birth.

Another controversial change in the air is to reduce the frequency of two costly tests of patients‘ blood. Viral-load (病毒载量) tests and CD4-cell counts both measure how acute an individual‘s infection has become. That helps a patient‘s doctor to decide when to prescribe anti-retroviral. But laboratory capacity in Africa is inadequate for regular testing of the millions of people that need such drugs—at least if the tests are carried out as frequently as they would be in a rich country. Less frequent testing of each individual would allow more individuals to be given at least some tests.

But that must be balanced against the need to treat more people faster. Doctors in Botswana are staggered at how desperately sick many patients are when they first arrive. They had expected people to walk into clinics for AIDS tests. Instead, many come in on stretchers on the verge of death. Treating the very ill takes much more time and money than giving anti-AIDS pills to relatively healthy people, and it means that these people may have been inadvertently infecting others for longer. If routine tests persuade more patients to get help before they slump on a stretcher, all the better.

Persuading patients to get treatment early will have the following advantages except ________.

Text 3

It is often helpful when thinking about biological processes to consider some apparently similar yet better understood non-biological process. In the case of visual perception an obvious choice would be color photography. Since in many respects eyes resemble cameras, and percepts photographs, is it not reasonable to assume that perception is a sort of photographic process whereby samples of the external world become spontaneously and accurately reproduced somewhere inside our heads Unfortunately, the answer must be no. The best that can be said of the photographic analogy is that it points up what perception is not. Beyond this it is superficial and misleading. Four simple experiments should make the matter plain.

In the first a person is asked to match a pair of black and white discs, which are rotating at such a speed as to make them appear uniformly grey. One disc is standing in shadow, the other in bright illumination. By adjusting the ratio of black to white in one of the discs the subject tries to make it look the same as the other. The results show him to be remarkably accurate, for it seems he has made the proportion of black to white in the brightly illuminated disc almost identical with that in the disc which stood in shadow. But there is nothing photographic about his perception, for when the matched discs, still spinning, are photographed, the resulting print shows them to be quite dissimilar in appearance.The disc in shadow is obviously very much darker than the other one. What has happened Both the camera and the person were accurate, but their criteria differed. One might say that the camera recorded things as they look and the person things as they are. But the situation is manifestly (明白地) more complex than this, for the person also recorded things as they look. He did better than the camera because he made them look as they really are. He was not misled by the differences in illumination. He showed perceptual constancy. By reason of an extremely rapid, wholly unconscious piece of computation he received a more accurate record of the external world than could the camera.

In the second experiment a person is asked to match with a color card the colors of two pictures in dim illumination.One is of a leaf, the other of a donkey. Both are colored an equal shade of green. In making his match he chooses a much stronger green for the leaf than for the donkey. The leaf evidently looks greener than the donkey. The percipient (有感知力的人) makes a perceptual world compatible with his own experience. It hardly needs saying that cameras lack this versatility.

In the third experiment hungry, thirsty and satiated (充分满足的) people are asked to equalize the brightness of pictures depicting food, water and other objects unrelated to hunger or thirst. When the intensities at which they set the pictures are measured it is found that hungry people see pictures relating to food as brighter than the rest (i.e. to equalize the pictures they make the food ones less intense), and thirsty people do likewise with “drink” pictures. For the satiated group no differences are obtained between the different objects. In other words, perception serves to satisfy needs, not to enrich subjective experience. Unlike a photograph the percept is determined by more than just the stimulus.

The fourth experiment is of a rather different kind. With ears plugged, their eyes beneath translucent(透亮的)goggles (转动眼珠) and their bodies either encased (包装) in cotton or wool, or floating naked in water at body temperature, people are deprived for considerable periods of external stimulation. Contrary to what one might expect,however, such circumstances result not in a lack of perceptual experience but rather a surprising change in what is perceived. The subjects in such an experiment begin to see, feel and hear things which bear no more relationship to the immediate external world than does a dream in someone who is asleep. These people are not asleep yet their hallucinations, or so-called autistic‘ perceptions, may be as vivid, if not more so, than any normal percept.

The group of experiments, taken together, proves that human perception is ________.

Text 2

Extraordinary creative activity has been characterized as revolutionary, flying in the face of what is established and producing not what is acceptable but what will become accepted. According to this formulation, highly creative activity transcends the limits of an existing form and establishes a new principle of organization. However, the idea that extraordinary creativity transcends established limits is misleading when it is applied to the arts, even though it may be valid for the sciences. Differences between highly creative art and highly creative science arise in part from a difference in their goals. For the sciences, a new theory is the goal and end result of the creative act. Innovative science produces new propositions in terms of which diverse phenomena can be related to one another in more coherent ways. Such phenomena as a brilliant diamond or a nesting bird are relegated to the role of data, serving as the means for formulating or testing a new theory. The goal of highly creative art is very different: the phenomenon itself becomes the direct product of the creative act.

Shakespeare‘s Hamlet is not a tract about the behaviour of indecisive princes or the uses of political power; nor is Picasso‘s painting ―Guernica‖ primarily a propositional statement about the Spanish Civil War or the evils of fascism. What highly creative artistic activity produces is not a new generalization that transcends established limits, but rather an aesthetic particular. Aesthetic particulars produced by the highly creative artist extend or exploit, in an innovative way,the limits of an existing form, rather than transcend that form.

This is not to deny that a highly creative artist sometimes establishes a new principle of organization in the history of an artistic field; the composer Monteverdi, who created music of the highest aesthetic value, comes to mind. More generally, however, whether or not a composition establishes a new principle in the history of music has little bearing in its aesthetic worth. Because they embody a new principle of organization, some musical works, such as the operas of the Florentine Camerata, are of signal historical importance, but few listeners or musicologists(音乐学者) would include these among the great works of music. On the other hand, Mozart‘s The Marriage of Figaro is surely among the masterpieces of music even though its modest innovations are confined to extending existing means. It has been said of Beethoven that he toppled(推翻) the rules and freed music from the stifling(令人窒息的) confines of convention. But a close study of his compositions reveals that Beethoven overturned no fundamental rules. Rather, he was an incomparable strategist who exploited limits—the rules, forms, and conventions that he inherited from predecessors such as Haydn and Mozart, Handel and Bach—in strikingly original ways.

The author considers a new theory that coherently relates diverse phenomena to one another to be the ________.

Text 2

Extraordinary creative activity has been characterized as revolutionary, flying in the face of what is established and producing not what is acceptable but what will become accepted. According to this formulation, highly creative activity transcends the limits of an existing form and establishes a new principle of organization. However, the idea that extraordinary creativity transcends established limits is misleading when it is applied to the arts, even though it may be valid for the sciences. Differences between highly creative art and highly creative science arise in part from a difference in their goals. For the sciences, a new theory is the goal and end result of the creative act. Innovative science produces new propositions in terms of which diverse phenomena can be related to one another in more coherent ways. Such phenomena as a brilliant diamond or a nesting bird are relegated to the role of data, serving as the means for formulating or testing a new theory. The goal of highly creative art is very different: the phenomenon itself becomes the direct product of the creative act.

Shakespeare‘s Hamlet is not a tract about the behaviour of indecisive princes or the uses of political power; nor is Picasso‘s painting ―Guernica‖ primarily a propositional statement about the Spanish Civil War or the evils of fascism. What highly creative artistic activity produces is not a new generalization that transcends established limits, but rather an aesthetic particular. Aesthetic particulars produced by the highly creative artist extend or exploit, in an innovative way,the limits of an existing form, rather than transcend that form.

This is not to deny that a highly creative artist sometimes establishes a new principle of organization in the history of an artistic field; the composer Monteverdi, who created music of the highest aesthetic value, comes to mind. More generally, however, whether or not a composition establishes a new principle in the history of music has little bearing in its aesthetic worth. Because they embody a new principle of organization, some musical works, such as the operas of the Florentine Camerata, are of signal historical importance, but few listeners or musicologists(音乐学者) would include these among the great works of music. On the other hand, Mozart‘s The Marriage of Figaro is surely among the masterpieces of music even though its modest innovations are confined to extending existing means. It has been said of Beethoven that he toppled(推翻) the rules and freed music from the stifling(令人窒息的) confines of convention. But a close study of his compositions reveals that Beethoven overturned no fundamental rules. Rather, he was an incomparable strategist who exploited limits—the rules, forms, and conventions that he inherited from predecessors such as Haydn and Mozart, Handel and Bach—in strikingly original ways.

The author implies that Beethoven‘s music was strikingly original because Beethoven ________.

Text 2

Extraordinary creative activity has been characterized as revolutionary, flying in the face of what is established and producing not what is acceptable but what will become accepted. According to this formulation, highly creative activity transcends the limits of an existing form and establishes a new principle of organization. However, the idea that extraordinary creativity transcends established limits is misleading when it is applied to the arts, even though it may be valid for the sciences. Differences between highly creative art and highly creative science arise in part from a difference in their goals. For the sciences, a new theory is the goal and end result of the creative act. Innovative science produces new propositions in terms of which diverse phenomena can be related to one another in more coherent ways. Such phenomena as a brilliant diamond or a nesting bird are relegated to the role of data, serving as the means for formulating or testing a new theory. The goal of highly creative art is very different: the phenomenon itself becomes the direct product of the creative act.

Shakespeare‘s Hamlet is not a tract about the behaviour of indecisive princes or the uses of political power; nor is Picasso‘s painting ―Guernica‖ primarily a propositional statement about the Spanish Civil War or the evils of fascism. What highly creative artistic activity produces is not a new generalization that transcends established limits, but rather an aesthetic particular. Aesthetic particulars produced by the highly creative artist extend or exploit, in an innovative way,the limits of an existing form, rather than transcend that form.

This is not to deny that a highly creative artist sometimes establishes a new principle of organization in the history of an artistic field; the composer Monteverdi, who created music of the highest aesthetic value, comes to mind. More generally, however, whether or not a composition establishes a new principle in the history of music has little bearing in its aesthetic worth. Because they embody a new principle of organization, some musical works, such as the operas of the Florentine Camerata, are of signal historical importance, but few listeners or musicologists(音乐学者) would include these among the great works of music. On the other hand, Mozart‘s The Marriage of Figaro is surely among the masterpieces of music even though its modest innovations are confined to extending existing means. It has been said of Beethoven that he toppled(推翻) the rules and freed music from the stifling(令人窒息的) confines of convention. But a close study of his compositions reveals that Beethoven overturned no fundamental rules. Rather, he was an incomparable strategist who exploited limits—the rules, forms, and conventions that he inherited from predecessors such as Haydn and Mozart, Handel and Bach—in strikingly original ways.

The passage states that the operas of the Florentine Camerata are ________.

Text 2

Extraordinary creative activity has been characterized as revolutionary, flying in the face of what is established and producing not what is acceptable but what will become accepted. According to this formulation, highly creative activity transcends the limits of an existing form and establishes a new principle of organization. However, the idea that extraordinary creativity transcends established limits is misleading when it is applied to the arts, even though it may be valid for the sciences. Differences between highly creative art and highly creative science arise in part from a difference in their goals. For the sciences, a new theory is the goal and end result of the creative act. Innovative science produces new propositions in terms of which diverse phenomena can be related to one another in more coherent ways. Such phenomena as a brilliant diamond or a nesting bird are relegated to the role of data, serving as the means for formulating or testing a new theory. The goal of highly creative art is very different: the phenomenon itself becomes the direct product of the creative act.

Shakespeare‘s Hamlet is not a tract about the behaviour of indecisive princes or the uses of political power; nor is Picasso‘s painting ―Guernica‖ primarily a propositional statement about the Spanish Civil War or the evils of fascism. What highly creative artistic activity produces is not a new generalization that transcends established limits, but rather an aesthetic particular. Aesthetic particulars produced by the highly creative artist extend or exploit, in an innovative way,the limits of an existing form, rather than transcend that form.

This is not to deny that a highly creative artist sometimes establishes a new principle of organization in the history of an artistic field; the composer Monteverdi, who created music of the highest aesthetic value, comes to mind. More generally, however, whether or not a composition establishes a new principle in the history of music has little bearing in its aesthetic worth. Because they embody a new principle of organization, some musical works, such as the operas of the Florentine Camerata, are of signal historical importance, but few listeners or musicologists(音乐学者) would include these among the great works of music. On the other hand, Mozart‘s The Marriage of Figaro is surely among the masterpieces of music even though its modest innovations are confined to extending existing means. It has been said of Beethoven that he toppled(推翻) the rules and freed music from the stifling(令人窒息的) confines of convention. But a close study of his compositions reveals that Beethoven overturned no fundamental rules. Rather, he was an incomparable strategist who exploited limits—the rules, forms, and conventions that he inherited from predecessors such as Haydn and Mozart, Handel and Bach—in strikingly original ways.

The passage supplies information for answering all of the following questions except ________.

Text 2

Extraordinary creative activity has been characterized as revolutionary, flying in the face of what is established and producing not what is acceptable but what will become accepted. According to this formulation, highly creative activity transcends the limits of an existing form and establishes a new principle of organization. However, the idea that extraordinary creativity transcends established limits is misleading when it is applied to the arts, even though it may be valid for the sciences. Differences between highly creative art and highly creative science arise in part from a difference in their goals. For the sciences, a new theory is the goal and end result of the creative act. Innovative science produces new propositions in terms of which diverse phenomena can be related to one another in more coherent ways. Such phenomena as a brilliant diamond or a nesting bird are relegated to the role of data, serving as the means for formulating or testing a new theory. The goal of highly creative art is very different: the phenomenon itself becomes the direct product of the creative act.

Shakespeare‘s Hamlet is not a tract about the behaviour of indecisive princes or the uses of political power; nor is Picasso‘s painting ―Guernica‖ primarily a propositional statement about the Spanish Civil War or the evils of fascism. What highly creative artistic activity produces is not a new generalization that transcends established limits, but rather an aesthetic particular. Aesthetic particulars produced by the highly creative artist extend or exploit, in an innovative way,the limits of an existing form, rather than transcend that form.

This is not to deny that a highly creative artist sometimes establishes a new principle of organization in the history of an artistic field; the composer Monteverdi, who created music of the highest aesthetic value, comes to mind. More generally, however, whether or not a composition establishes a new principle in the history of music has little bearing in its aesthetic worth. Because they embody a new principle of organization, some musical works, such as the operas of the Florentine Camerata, are of signal historical importance, but few listeners or musicologists(音乐学者) would include these among the great works of music. On the other hand, Mozart‘s The Marriage of Figaro is surely among the masterpieces of music even though its modest innovations are confined to extending existing means. It has been said of Beethoven that he toppled(推翻) the rules and freed music from the stifling(令人窒息的) confines of convention. But a close study of his compositions reveals that Beethoven overturned no fundamental rules. Rather, he was an incomparable strategist who exploited limits—the rules, forms, and conventions that he inherited from predecessors such as Haydn and Mozart, Handel and Bach—in strikingly original ways.

The author regards the idea that all highly creative artistic activity transcends limits with ________.